GROUNDWATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT

Table of Contents
Acknowledgments ......................................................................... vii
Contributors ......................................................................... viii

1. Introduction ......................................................................... 1
Stewart W. Taylor
1.1 Groundwater Management 1
1.2 Purpose, Scope, and Organization of Book 3
1.3 Future Trends 6
1.4 References 8
2. Groundwater Hydrology ......................................................... 10
George F. Pinder





2.1 Hydrologic Cycle 10
2.2 The Near Surface Environment 10
2.3 Physics of Flow through Porous Media 11
2.4 References 35

3. Groundwater Quality: Fate and Transport of Contaminants ............ 36
Mohammad N. Almasri and Jagath J. Kaluarachchi

3.1 Introduction 36
3.2 Transport Processes 44
3.3 Chemical Reactions, Retardation and Decay of Solutes 51
3.4 Mathematical Model of Contaminant Transport 60
3.5 Analytical Solutions to the Mass Transport Equation 62
3.6 Numerical Solutions to the Mass Transport Equation 65
3.7 Demonstration Example 66

3.8 On the Use of Artificial Neural Networks in the Analysis
of Nitrate Distribution in Groundwater 67
3.9 References 80

4. Review of Analytical Methods of Modeling Contaminant Fate and Transport ...................................................................... 85
Venkataraman Srinivasan and T. Prabhakar Clement
4.1 Introduction 85
4.2 Single Species Transport 85
4.3 Multi-species Reactive Transport in One-Dimensional Systems 89
4.4 Multi-species Transport in Multi-dimensional Systems 112
4.5 Conclusions 115
4.6 References 116

5. Physical and Chemical Characterization of Groundwater Systems ... 119
Randall W. Gentry
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Reconnaissance-Level Investigations 122
5.3 Geophysical Investigations 123

5.4 Test Drilling and Well Installation 125
5.5 Water Quality Characterization 128
5.6 Characterization Guidance and Specifications 131
5.7 References 132

6. Quantitative Analysis of Groundwater Systems ............................ 137
David Ahlfeld
6.1 Use of Models in Groundwater Management 137
6.2 Constructing Site-Specific Simulation Models 138
6.3 Optimization Methods for Groundwater Management 151
6.4 References 154


7. Model Calibration and Parameter Structure Identification in Characterization of Groundwater Systems ............................... 159
Frank T.-C. Tsai and William W.-G. Yeh
7.1 Introduction 159
7.2 Parameterization of Heterogeneity 163
7.3 Parameter Structure Identification 172
7.4 Interpolation Point Selection 177
7.5 Model Selection 180
7.6 Bayesian Model Averaging 184
7.7 Experimental Design 191
7.8 Summary and Conclusions 193
7.9 References 194

8. Development of Groundwater Resources ................................. 203
Zhuping Sheng, Jiang Li, Phillip J. King, and William Miller
8.1 Introduction 203

8.2 Aquifer Yield and Groundwater Availability 203
8.3 Effects of Groundwater Development 228
8.4 Regional Scale Development of Groundwater 239
8.5 Conjunctive Use of Surface Water and Groundwater 250

8.6 Coastal Aquifer Development 271
8.7 Development of Brackish Groundwater 278
8.8 References 284

9. Subsurface and Surface Water Flow Interactions .......................... 295
Mohamed M. Hantush, Latif Kalin, and Rao S. Govindaraju
9.1 Introduction 295
9.2 Subsurface Flow in Near Stream Environments 296
9.3 Surface-Subsurface Interactions at the Hillslope Scale 352
9.4 Watershed Scale Groundwater and Surface Water Interactions 360
9.5 References 380


10. Density Dependent Flows, Saltwater Intrusion and Management ..... 394
Bithin Datta and Anirban Dhar
10.1 Introduction 394
10.2 Density-Dependent Governing Equations 399
10.3 Saltwater Intrusion and Management 404
10.4 Summary and Future Directions 420
10.5 References 423

11. In-Situ Air Sparging and Thermally-Enhanced Venting
in Groundwater Remediation ........................................... 430
Wonyong Jang and Mustafa M. Aral
11.1 Introduction 430

11.2 In-Situ Air Sparging 431
11.3 Thermally-Enhanced Venting 454
11.4 Conclusions 464
11.5 References 465

12. Source Control and Chemical Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater Sites ............................................................... 475
Natalie L. Cápiro and Kurt D. Pennell
12.1 Introduction 475
12.2 Non-Aqueous Phase Liquid (NAPL) Source Zones 476
12.3 Hydraulic Controls and Pump-and-Treat Systems 482
12.4 Physical and Reactive Barriers 486
12.5 In-Situ Chemical Oxidation 490
12.6 Surfactant Enhanced Aquifer Remediation (SEAR) 493
12.7 Cosolvent Flushing 500

12.8 Thermal Treatment 502
12.9 Effectiveness of Source Zone Treatment Technologies 505
12.10 Combined In Situ Remediation Strategies 508
12.11 Summary and Conclusions 510
12.12 References 511

13. Bioremediation of Contaminated Groundwater Systems .................. 522
T. Prabhakar Clement
13.1 Introduction 522
13.2 Classification of Bioremediation Methods 524
13.3 Biochemical Principles of Bioremediation 526
13.4 Fundamentals of Petroleum and Chlorinated Solvent Biodegradation
Processes 529

13.5 Design of Bioremediation Systems 536
13.6 Assessment of Bioclogging Effects during Remediation 542
13.7 Monitored Natural Attenuation 543
13.8 Numerical Modeling of Bioremediation Systems 546
13.9 References 553

14. Closure on Groundwater Quantity and Quality Management .......... 560
Mustafa M. Aral
14.1 Introduction 560
14.2 Environmental Management Paradigms 560
14.3 Groundwater and Health Effects Management 562
14.4 Integration of Scientific Fields and Educational Programs 563
14.5 Purpose and Goals 565
14.6 References 566

Index .................................................................................569

Purpose, Scope, and Organization of Book

The main objective of this book is to provide the groundwater community an overview of groundwater quantity and quality management with a focus on the interrelationship between quantity and quality. Based on the discussion above, the following areas are targeted: (1) modeling groundwater flow and solute transport for the purpose of forecasting, including the physical and chemical characterization needed to establish model parameters and support model calibration; (2) developing groundwater resources with consideration given to groundwater-surface water interaction and saltwater intrusion; and (3) re-mediating groundwater resources by physical, chemical, and biological means. Accordingly, the present chapter establishes the framework for groundwater management and introduces the reader to the key components required to manage groundwater quantity and quality.

Chapter 2 introduces the hydrologic cycle, provides definitions for the vadose zone and unsaturated zone, and discusses the physics of flow through porous media. The scope of the latter discussion includes porous media properties, balance laws, constitutive relationships, single- and multi-phase flow, fracture flow, and the auxiliary conditions required to solve groundwater flow problems. Regional flow and surface water-groundwater interactions are discussed as well. The aim of this chapter is to provide the reader with the theoretical background necessary to make quantitative forecasts related to groundwater quantity.

Chapter 3 provides an overview of the main concepts of groundwater contamination, including sources and types of groundwater contaminants, fate and transport processes in groundwater, and mathematical modeling. The equations governing solute transport are developed, and the reaction processes of adsorption and biological, chemical, and radiological decay are discussed. Analytical solutions for various boundary and initial conditions are presented. Numerical solutions are described. The objective of Chapter 3 is to provide the reader with the theoretical underpinnings needed to forecast changes in groundwater quality as result of introducing contaminants.

Chapter 4 describes analytical solutions to contaminant transport equations with a focus on solutions to reactive transport problems. Solutions to both single- and multi-species reactive transport equations in one- and multi-dimensional systems are reviewed from a historical perspective. The general solution to the multi-species reactive transport equation is discussed in detail, including special cases solutions involving a zero initial condition, identical retardation factors, zero advection

velocity, steady state transport, and zero dispersion coefficient. The solutions presented in this chapter offer efficient means of simulating the fate and transport of reactive contaminants.

Chapter 5 outlines the field and laboratory methods that are commonly used to physically and chemically characterize groundwater systems. Surface and downhole geophysical methods are discussed. Test drilling and piezometer and well installation are described, and piezometer tests and aquifer pumping tests are reviewed. An overview of groundwater sampling and analysis for the purpose of characterizing water quality and contamination levels is provided. Commonly used industry standards for conducting subsurface investigations are identified. The aim of this chapter is to identify the investigative methods that are commonly used to characterize the various parameters that appear in the groundwater flow equation (Chapter 2) and solute transport equations (Chapter 3).

Chapter 6 discusses the use of models for groundwater management. The steps commonly used to select, construct, and calibrate a site-specific groundwater model are described. The simulation-optimization approach, which involves the coupling of a predictive simulation model with an optimization algorithm, to solving groundwater management problems is discussed. The intent of this chapter is to provide the reader an overview of how groundwater models can be used to facilitate groundwater management.

Chapter 7 summarizes recent progress in model calibration and model uncertainty assessment in groundwater modeling. The main focus is on identifying the parameter structure of a heterogeneous hydraulic conductivity field via solution to the inverse problem. Zonation and interpolation methods are discussed. A generalized parameterization method of parameter structure identification is introduced, which
integrates the traditional zoning and interpolation methods, but avoids the shortcomings of each individual method. The parameter structure identification problem is discussed along with the problems of interpolation point selection and model. To resolve the non-uniqueness problem, Baysian model averaging is proposed to consider multiple methods for parameter structure identification.

Chapter 8 explores the concepts of well yield, perennial yield, and mining yield as they relate to the development of groundwater resources. Effects of groundwater development are described, including water level decline, depletion of surface water, brackish and saltwater intrusion, and land subsidence. Regional-scale development of groundwater, conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater, artificial recharge, and coastal and brackish groundwater development are discussed as well. Several

case studies are described that illustrate the effective development and management of groundwater in various hydrogeological settings.

Chapter 9 presents the basic concepts and principles underlying the phenomena of groundwater and surface water interactions. Fundamental equations, analytical and numerical solutions describing stream-aquifer interactions are presented in hillslope and riparian aquifer environments. Analytical and numerical techniques for solving flow routing problems in channels with contiguous alluvial aquifers are discussed. Classical and recent developments in modeling stream depletion due to groundwater pumping are described. A case study on watershed-scale modeling of groundwater

and surface water interaction is presented.

Chapter 10 discusses saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers and various approaches to managing saltwater intrusion. The governing equations for density-dependent flow are presented and numerical solutions methods are described. The descriptive predictive management model, which combines a simulation model with and optimization model, is discussed.
Three multi-objective models for managing saltwater intrusion are presented. These models are solved for a representative coastal aquifer by constructing a physical simulation model and then using this model to train an artificial neural network model. This approximate simulation model is then linked with a genetic algorithm optimization model to develop solutions for each of the multi-objective models. The role of monitoring data for improving management strategies is also discussed.

Chapter 11 deals with the application of in situ air sparging and thermal venting for groundwater remediation. The physical, chemical, and biological processes associated with air sparging are described, and the contaminants and site conditions conducive to air sparging are identified. Multi-phase flow and contaminant transport models for the air sparging process are developed, results for a representative contaminant plume are presented, and field applications are discussed.
Injection of hot air or steam, electrical resistance heating, and radio frequency heating for the thermally-enhanced venting of low- to semi-volatile organic compounds from the unsaturated zone are described. A multi-phase heat transport model for thermally-enhanced venting is presented andapplied to simulate the removal of non-aqueous phase liquid (NAPL) source in the unsaturated zone. Results of field applications of thermally-enhance venting are discussed.

Chapter 12 focuses on in situ remediation of source zones comprised of petroleum hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents, the most widespread contaminant classes. NAPL source zones are described, and NAPL migration, constituent properties, and dissolution are discussed. Hydraulic controls and pump-and-treat systems used to limit and/or control the migration of dissolved-phase contamination from NAPL source zones are described and their limitations are highlighted. In situ technologies for the remediation of dissolved-phase contamination associated with NAPL source zones are discussed, including permeable reactive barriers and in situ chemical oxidation. An overview of in situ methods for NAPL source zone remediation is presented that addresses surfactant enhanced aquifer remediation, co-solvent flushing, and thermal treatment. The effectiveness of various source zone treatment technologies are discussed along with the benefits of combining in situ remediation strategies.

Chapter 13 presents methods used to bioremediate groundwater systems contaminated by petroleum hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents. The bio degradation mechanisms are discussed for both classes of contaminants. Active bio remediation system designs for groundwater systems are described along with the approach of monitored natural attenuation. Analytical and numerical methods for modeling the bio degradation of petroleum hydrocarbons and chlorinated solvents are

addressed.

Finally, Chapter 14 discusses the current state of the groundwater quantity and quality management research field. The evolution of environmental management paradigms over the last several decades is described. The role of health effects in shaping future groundwater and environmental management philosophy is discussed, along with the need to better integrate the engineering, social, basic and health sciences in addressing complicated issues related to incorporating environmental health issues

into our groundwater management philosophy. Lastly, potential applications of resilience analysis and complex systems theory to groundwater management problems are discussed.

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GROUNDWATER QUANTITY AND QUALITY MANAGEMENT