Contents
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 History of Photomapping
1.1.2 Photogrammetrists and Image Analysts
1.1.2.1 Photogrammetrists
1.1.2.2 Image Analysts
1.1.3 Utilization of Aerial Photos
1.1.3.1 End Products
1.1.3.2 Effort
1.1.4 Photogrammetry
1.1.4.1 Digital Mapping
1.1.4.2 Supplemental Functions
1.1.4.3 Commercial Mapping
1.1.5 Mapper vs. User
Chapter 2 Electromagnetic Energy
2.1 Radiant Energy
2.1.1 Radiant Waves
2.1.2 Distribution of Energy
2.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2.1 Visible Light
2.2.2 Infrared
2.2.2.1 Reflected Infrared
2.2.2.2 Emitted Heat
Chapter 3 Aerial Films
3.1 Aerial Films
3.1.1 Types of Film
3.1.1.1 Panchromatic
3.1.1.2 Color
3.1.1.3 Infrared
3.2 Sensitometry
> 3.3 Filters
3.4 Film Processing
3.5 Resolution
3.5.1 Spectral Resolution
3.5.2 Spatial Resolution
3.5.3 Radiometric Resolution
3.6 Application of Aerial Films
3.6.1 Panchromatic
3.6.2 Infrared
3.6.3 Natural Color
3.6.4 Color Infrared
Chapter 4 Airborne Sensor Platforms
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Fixed-Wing Aircraft
4.2.1 Single-Engine Platform
4.2.2 Multi-Engine Platform
4.3 Flight Crews
4.4 Navigation
4.5 Helicopter Platforms
4.6 Aerial Cameras
4.6.1 Camera Mount
4.6.2 Analog Camera Components
4.6.2.1 Magazine
4.6.2.2 Film Reels
4.6.2.3 Focal Plane
4.6.2.4 Lens Cone
4.6.2.5 Image Motion
4.6.3 Camera System
4.6.4 Focal Length
4.6.5 Camera Calibration Report
4.6.6 Digital Camera Components
Chapter 5 Aerial Photographs
5.1 Nomenclature of an Aerial Photograph
5.2 Uses of Aerial Photographs
5.3 Time-Lapse Photography
5.4 Sources of Aerial Photographs
5.4.1. Private-Sector Mappers
5.4.1.1 Management Association for Private Photogrammetric
Surveyors
5.4.1.2 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
5.4.2 Federal
5.4.2.1 Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service
5.4.2.2 U.S. Geological Surveys
5.4.2.3 National Archives
5.4.2.4 The Earth Resources Observation Satellite
5.4.2.5 Others
5.4.3 States
5.4.4 Counties and Municipalities
Chapter 6 Geometry of Aerial Photographs
6.1 Scale Expressions
6.1.1 Representative Fraction
6.1.2 Engineers’ Scale
6.1.3 Scale Conversion
6.2 Geometry of Photo Scale
6.2.1 Derivation of Photo Scale
6.2.2 Controlling Photo Scale
6.2.2.1 Engineers’ Scale
6.2.2.2 Representative Fraction
6.2.3 Scale Formula
6.2.4 Flight Height
6.2.5 Relative Photo Scales
6.3 Photo Overlap
6.3.1 Endlap
6.3.2 Sidelap
6.4 Stereomodel
6.5 Relief Displacement
6.5.1 Causes of Displacement
6.5.2 Effects of Displacement
6.5.3 Distortion vs. Displacement
6.6 Measuring Object Height
Chapter 7 Map Compilation
7.1 History
7.1.1 Stereoplotters
7.1.1.1 Georeferencing
7.1.1.2 Data Compilation
7.1.2 Evolution of Stereoplotters
7.1.2.1 Digital Stereoplotters
7.1.2.2 Softcopy Systems
7.1.3 Future Developments
7.2 Data Format
7.2.1 Raster Format
7.2.2 Vector Format
7.2.3 Attributes
7.3 Digital Output
Chapter 8 Map Accuracies
8.1 Quality Assurance/Quality Control
8.1.1 Significance of Quality Assurance/Quality Control
8.1.2 Funding vs. Quality
8.2 Ramifications of Faulty Mapping
8.2.1 Rework
8.2.2 Abandoned Schedules
8.2.2.1 Original Schedule
8.2.2.2 Revised Schedule
8.2.3 Design Failures
8.2.4 Legal Action
8.3 Map Accuracy Standards
8.3.1 Various Map Accuracy Standards
8.3.2 National Map Accuracy Standards (1947)
8.3.3 American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing
8.3.3.1 Horizontal Inaccuracies
8.3.3.2 Contour Inaccuracies
8.3.3.3 Spot Elevation Inaccuracies
8.3.4 Federal Geographic Data Committee
8.3.4.1 Horizontal Standard Error
8.4 Procedural Suggestions
8.4.1 Cautions
8.4.1.1 Historical Acceptance of National Map Accuracy
Standards
8.4.1.2 Indiscriminate Data Use
8.4.2 Options
8.4.2.1 Experienced User
8.4.2.2 Inexperienced User
8.5 Merging Diverse Data
8.6 Mapping System Errors
8.6.1 Photography
8.6.2 Stereocompilation
8.6.2.1 Visual Acuity
8.6.2.2 Image Definition
Chapter 9 Photo Scale Selection
9.1 Contour Factor
9.1.1 Application of the C-Factor
9.1.2 Influences upon C-Factor
9.2 Photo Scale/Map Scale/Contour Interval
9.2.1 Planimetric Features
9.2.2 Photo Scale/Map Scale
9.2.3 Topographic Features
9.2.3.1 Flexible C-Factor
9.2.3.2 Photo Scale/Contour Interval
9.2.3.3 Contours from Existing Photos
9.2.4 Photo Scale Selection
9.2.4.1 Compatible Parameters
9.2.4.2 Incompatible Parameters
9.3 Planning an Aerial Photo Mission
9.3.1 Laying Out Flight Lines
9.3.1.1 Sidelap Gain
9.3.1.2 Flight Line Orientation
9.3.1.3 Airborne Global Positioning System (ABGPS)
Navigation
9.3.2 Determining Number of Photos
9.3.3 Calculating Flight Height
Chapter 10 Geographic Referencing
10.1 Geographic Location Systems
10.1.1 Land Subdivision
10.1.2 Digital Mapping Data
10.1.3 Coordinate Systems
10.1.3.1 Universal Transverse Mercator
10.1.3.2 State Plane
10.1.3.3 Latitude/Longitude
10.2 Ground Control Surveys
10.2.1 Basic Surveying
10.2.1.1 Angles
10.2.1.2 Distances
10.2.1.3 Levels
10.2.2 Electronic Surveying
10.3 Ground Survey Toolbox
10.3.1 Conventional Ground Survey
10.4 Global Positioning
10.4.1 Determining Spatial Coordinates
10.4.2 Global Positioning System Procedures
10.4.2.1 Static Global Positioning System
10.4.2.2 Kinematic Global Positioning System
10.4.3 Airborne Global Positioning (ABGPS)
10.4.3.1 Aircraft
10.4.3.2 Reference to Ground Station
10.4.3.3 Aircrew Duties
10.5 Basic Control Networks
10.5.1 Conventional Surveys
10.5.2 Control Reference
10.5.2.1 Horizontal
10.5.2.2 Vertical Control
10.5.3 Traverse/Circuit Accuracy
10.5.3.1 Horizontal
10.5.3.2 Vertical
10.6 Photo Control Points
10.6.1 Photo Image Points
10.6.2 Ground Targets
10.6.3 Size
10.6.4 Control Point Selection
10.6.4.1 Conventional Control
10.6.4.2 Skeletal Control
Chapter 11 Aerotriangulation
11.1 Photo Control Bridging
11.1.1 Control Point Selection
11.1.2 Bridging Spans
11.1.3 Skeletal Ground Control
11.1.4 Photo Control Extension Procedure
11.1.4.1 Photo Image Point Location
11.1.4.2 Point Pugging
11.1.4.3 Reading Diapositive Coordinates
11.1.4.4 Computer Processing
11.1.5 Accuracy of Aerotriangulation
11.1.6 Accuracy Check
11.1.7 Effects of Analytical Error
11.1.7.1 C-Factor Adjustment
11.1.7.2 Ground Targets
11.1.8 Example of Field Control Point Scheme for Aerotriangulation
Chapter 12 Photogrammetric Map Compilation
12.1 Digital Mapping Data
12.2 Coordinate Systems and Data
12.2.1 Coordinate Reference Systems
12.2.2 Coordinate Systems
12.2.2.1 Universal Transverse Mercator
12.2.2.2 State Plane
12.2.2.3 Latitude/Longitude
12.2.3 Vertical Data
12.3 Structure of Digital Data
12.3.1 Digital Data Generation
12.3.1.1 Feature Code
12.3.1.2 Macro File
12.3.1.3 Data String
12.3.1.4 Data Form
12.3.2 Automated Feature Collection Methods
12.3.3 Data Collection
12.3.3.1 Planimetric Features
12.3.3.2 Topographic Features
12.3.3.3 Annotation
12.4 Advancements in Map Compilation
12.4.1 Elevation Data Collection Methods
12.4.2 Planimetric Feature Collection Methods
12.5 Data Standards
12.6 Digital Mapping Data Flow
12.6.1 Project Planning
12.6.2 Ground Control Collection
12.6.3 Imagery Collection
12.6.4 Stereomodel Orientation
12.6.5 Digital Data Stereocompilation
12.6.5.1 Planimetric Features
12.6.5.2 Topographic Features
12.6.5.3 Data Scheme
12.6.5.4 Digital Data Edit
12.6.6 Ancillary Data Collection
12.6.7 U.S. Geological Survey Data
Chapter 13 Information Systems
13.1 Information Systems
13.1.1 Value of Geographic Information Systems
13.1.2 Demands of a Geographic Information System
13.2 Computer-Aided Mapping
13.3 Themes
13.4 Data Collection for Information Systems
13.5 U.S. Geological Survey Information Sources
13.5.1 Tutorial
13.5.2 Geospatial Information
13.5.3 Areas of Specialty
Chapter 14 Orthophotography
14.1 General
14.2 Orthophotos
14.3 Digital Orthophoto Image Production
14.3.1 General
14.3.2 Design Parameters
14.3.2.1 Imagery and Ground Control
14.3.2.2 Image Scanning
14.3.2.3 Ground Control
14.3.2.4 Digital Elevation Model
14.3.2.5 Data Merge and Radiometric Correction
14.3.2.6 Tiling and Formatting
14.4 Orthophoto Cost
Chapter 15 Remote Sensing
15.1 Remote Sensing
15.2 Searching the Internet
15.2.1 Tutorials
15.2.2 Applications Dynamics
15.3 Remote Sensing Systems
15.3.1 Thematic Data Collection
15.3.2 Scanners
15.3.3 Types of Sensors
15.3.3.1 Aerial Camera
15.3.3.2 Video Camera
15.3.3.3 Scanners
15.4 Aerial Photo Image Scanning
15.5 Satellite Imagery
15.5.1 Data Format
15.5.2 Spectral Bands
15.5.3 Georeferencing Satellite Data
15.5.3.1 Advantages of Satellite Scenes
15.5.3.2 Pictorial Image
15.5.3.3 Change Detection
15.5.3.4 Perspective Views
15.5.3.5 Screen Digitizing
15.5.4 Restrictions
15.6 Satellite Systems
15.6.1 LANDSAT
15.6.2 SPOT
15.6.2.1 Off-Nadir Viewing
15.6.2.2 Applications
15.6.2.3 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency
15.6.2.4 Indian Remote Sensing
15.6.2.5 Earth Remote Sensing
15.6.2.6 IKONOS-2
15.6.2.7 RADARSAT
15.6.2.8 RDL Space Corporation
15.6.2.9 Data Comparison
15.7 Airborne Sensors
15.7.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Image Spectrometer
15.7.2 Thermal Infrared Multispectral Scanner
15.7.3 Digital Multispectral Videography
15.8 Sources of Satellite Imagery
15.8.1 SPOT
15.8.2 LANDSAT
15.8.3 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency
15.8.4 Space Imaging EOSAT
Chapter 16 Image Analysis
16.1 Analysis Procedures
16.1.1 Data Acquisition
16.1.2 Rectify Data
16.1.3 Thematic Map Generation
16.1.3.1 Supervised Classification
16.1.3.2 Unsupervised Classification
16.1.4 Areal Mensuration
16.1.5 Ground Truth Sampling
16.1.6 Data Correlation
16.1.7 Reporting
16.2 Image Interpretation Keys
16.2.1 Composition of Keys
16.2.2 Types of Keys
16.2.3 Interpretation Characteristics
16.2.3.1 Shape
16.2.3.2 Size
16.2.3.3 Pattern
16.2.3.4 Shadows
16.2.3.5 Tone
16.2.3.6 Texture
16.2.3.7 Site
Chapter 17 Project Planning and Cost Estimating
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Specifications
17.2.1 Project Description and Boundary
17.2.2 Define Products
17.2.3 Standards and Accuracy Requirements
17.3 Processes
17.3.1 Aerial Photography
17.3.2 Ground Survey Control
17.3.3 Densification of Ground Control
17.3.4 Elevation Model Collection
17.3.5 Planimetric Data Collection
17.4 Estimating Production Effort and Cost
17.4.1 Estimating Factors
17.4.1.1 Labor
17.4.1.2 Equipment
17.4.1.3 Overhead and Profit
17.4.2 Costing Aerial Photography
17.4.3 Costing Photo Control Surveying
17.4.4 Costing Aerotriangulation
17.4.5 Costing Photogrammetric Compilation
17.4.6 Costing Orthophoto Images
17.4.7 Summary of Production Efforts
Appendix A Example of a Typical Photogrammetric Mapping Project Cost
Estimation
A.1 Specification
A.2 Cost Estimation Process
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