Introduction to Remote Sensing Fifth Edition

Contents

Preface xv

List of Tables xix

List of Figures xxi

List of Plates xxxi

Part I. Foundations

1. History and Scope of Remote Sensing ...........................................................3
1.1. Introduction .................................................................................................3





1.2. Definitions ...................................................................................................4
1.3. Milestones in the History of Remote Sensing ............................................7
1.4. Overview of the Remote Sensing Process .................................................18
1.5. Key Concepts of Remote Sensing ..............................................................19
1.6. Career Preparation and Professional Development ...................................21
1.7. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ..................................................25
Review Questions .............................................................................................27
References ........................................................................................................28


2. Electromagnetic Radiation ...........................................................................31
2.1. Introduction ...............................................................................................31
2.2. The Electromagnetic Spectrum .................................................................31
2.3. Major Divisions of the Electromagnetic Spectrum ..................................34
2.4. Radiation Laws ........................................................................................36
2.5. Interactions with the Atmosphere ............................................................38
2.6. Interactions with Surfaces ........................................................................48
2.7. Summary: Three Models for Remote Sensing .........................................54
2.8. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ..................................................56
Review Questions ...........................................................................................56
References ......................................................................................................57


Part II. Image Acquisition

3. Mapping Cameras .....................................................................................61
3.1. Introduction ............................................................................................61
3.2. Fundamentals of the Aerial Photograph .................................................62
3.3. Geometry of the Vertical Aerial Photograph .........................................66
3.4. Digital Aerial Cameras ...........................................................................72
3.5. Digital Scanning of Analog Images .......................................................77
3.6. Comparative Characteristics of Digital and Analog Imagery ................78
3.7. Spectral Sensitivity ................................................................................79
3.8. Band Combinations: Optical Imagery
...................................................80
3.9. Coverage by Multiple Photographs .......................................................84
3.10. Photogrammetry ..................................................................................90
3.11. Sources of Aerial Photography ............................................................91
3.12. Summary .............................................................................................94
3.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources .............................................94
Review Questions .........................................................................................95
References ....................................................................................................95
Your Own Infrared Photographs .................................................................97
Your Own 3D Photographs .........................................................................98
Your Own Kite Photography .......................................................................99


4. Digital Imagery .....................................................................................101
4.1. Introduction ........................................................................................101
4.2. Electronic Imagery .............................................................................101
4.3. Spectral Sensitivity ............................................................................106
4.4. Digital Data ........................................................................................109
4.5. Data Formats .......................................................................................111
4.6. Band Combinations: Multispectral Imagery .......................................115
4.7. Image Enhancement ............................................................................117
4.8. Image Display .....................................................................................121
4.9. Image Processing Software .................................................................125
4.10. Summary ...........................................................................................128
4.11. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ..........................................128
Review Questions .......................................................................................128
References .................................................................................................129



5. Image Interpretation .............................................................................130
5.1. Introduction ........................................................................................130
5.2. The Context for Image Interpretation .................................................131
5.3. Image Interpretation Tasks ..................................................................132
5.4. Elements of Image Interpretation .......................................................133
5.5. Collateral Information ........................................................................138
5.6. Imagery Interpretability Rating Scales ..............................................138
5.7. Image Interpretation Keys .................................................................139
5.8. Interpretive Overlays .........................................................................139
5.9. The Significance of Context ..............................................................140
5.10. Stereovision ......................................................................................143
5.11. Data Transfer ...................................................................................147
5.12. Digital Photointerpretation ...............................................................147
5.13. Image Scale Calculations .................................................................148
5.14. Summary ...........................................................................................151
5.15. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ...........................................152
Review Questions ......................................................................................152
References ..................................................................................................153


6. Land Observation Satellites ..................................................................158
6.1. Satellite Remote Sensing ....................................................................158
6.2. Landsat Origins ...................................................................................159
6.3. Satellite Orbits .....................................................................................160
6.4. The Landsat System ............................................................................162
6.5. Multispectral Scanner Subsystem ........................................................167
6.6. Landsat Thematic Mapper ...................................................................172
6.7. Administration of the Landsat Program ..............................................176
6.8. Current Satellite Systems ....................................................................178
6.9. Data Archives and Image Research ......................................................192
6.10. Summary ............................................................................................194
6.11. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ............................................195
Review Questions ........................................................................................195
References ...................................................................................................196
CORONA ...................................................................................................198


7. Active Microwave .....................................................................................204
7.1. Introduction ........................................................................................204
7.2. Active Microwave ...............................................................................204
7.3. Geometry of the Radar Image ............................................................208
7.4. Wavelength ..........................................................................................212
7.5. Penetration of the Radar Signal ..........................................................212
7.6. Polarization ........................................................................................214
7.7. Look Direction and Look Angle ........................................................215
7.8. Real Aperture Systems .......................................................................217
7.9. Synthetic Aperture Systems ...............................................................219
7.10. Interpreting Brightness Values ............................................................221
7.11. Satellite Imaging Radars ...................................................................226
7.12. Radar Interferometry. .......................................................................236
7.13. Summary ............
..............................................................................239
7.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources .........................................239
Review Questions .....................................................................................240
References .................................................................................................241

8. Lidar ......................................................................................................243
8.1. Introduction ........................................................................................243
8.2. Profiling Lasers ..................................................................................244
8.3. Imaging Lidars ....................................................................................245
8.4. Lidar Imagery .....................................................................................247
8.5. Types of Imaging Lidars .....................................................................247
8.6. Processing Lidar Image Data .............................................................249
8.7. Summary .............................................................................................253
8.8. Some Teaching and Learning Resources .............................................254
Review Questions .......................................................................................254
References ...................................................................................................255

9. Thermal Imagery ....................................................................................257
9.1. Introduction .........................................................................................257
9.2. Thermal Detectors ...............................................................................258


9.3. Thermal Radiometry ............................................................................260
9.4. Microwave Radiometers ......................................................................263
9.5. Thermal Scanners .................................................................................263
9.6. Thermal Properties of Objects ..............................................................265
9.7. Geometry of Thermal Images ..............................................................268
9.8. The Thermal Image and Its Interpretation ...........................................269
9.9. Heat Capacity Mapping Mission ..........................................................277
9.10. Landsat Multispectral Scanner and Thematic Mapper
Thermal Data ..............................................................................................279
9.11. Summary .............................................................................................280
9.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ............................................281
Review Questions .........................................................................................282
References ....................................................................................................283



10. Image Resolution ...................................................................................285
10.1. Introduction and Definitions ..............................................................285
10.2. Target Variables ..................................................................................286
10.3. System Variables ................................................................................287
10.4. Operating Conditions ..........................................................................287
10.5. Measurement of Resolution ................................................................288
10.6. Mixed Pixels ........................................................................................290
10.7. Spatial and Radiometric Resolution: Simple Examples .......................294
10.8. Interactions with the Landscape ...........................................................296
10.9. Summary ...............................................................................................298
Review Questions ...........................................................................................298
References .....................................................................................................299

Part III. Analysis


11. Preprocessing ...........................................................................................305
11.1. Introduction ...........................................................................................305
11.2. Radiometric Preprocessing ...................................................................305
11.3. Some More Advanced Atmospheric Correction Tools ..........................308
11.4. Calculating Radiances from DNs ...........................................................311
11.5. Estimation of Top of Atmosphere Reflectance ......................................312
11.6. Destriping and Related Issues ................................................................313
11.7. Identification of Image Features ............................................................316
11.8. Subsets ...................................................................................................320
11.9. Geometric Correction by Resampling ....................................................321
11.10. Data Fusion ...........................................................................................326
11.11. Image Data Processing Standards .........................................................329
11.12. Summary ................................................................................................330
Review Questions ............................................................................................330
References ........................................................................................................331


12. Image Classification .................................................................................335
12.1. Introduction .............................................................................................335
12.2. Informational Classes and Spectral Classes ............................................337
12.3. Unsupervised Classification ...................................................................339
12.4. Supervised Classification .......................................................................349
12.5. Ancillary Data .........................................................................................364
12.6. Fuzzy Clustering .....................................................................................367
12.7. Artificial Neural Networks ......................................................................368
12.8. Contextual Classification .........................................................................370
12.9. Object-Oriented Classification .................................................................371
12.10. Iterative Guided Spectral Class Rejection ..............................................373
12.11. Summary .................................................................................................373
12.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ................................................373
Review Questions ................................................................................................374
References ...........................................................................................................375


13. Field Data .......................................................................................................382
13.1. Introduction ................................................................................................382
13.2. Kinds of Field Data ....................................................................................382
13.3. Nominal Data           ...................................................................................383
13.4. Documentation of Nominal Data ...............................................................384
13.5. Biophysical Data .........................................................................................384
13.6. Field Radiometry ........................................................................................387
13.7. Unmanned Airborne Vehicles ....................................................................389
13.8. Locational Information ...............................................................................392
13.9. Using Locational Information .....................................................................397
13.10. Ground Photography .................................................................................397
13.11. Geographic Sampling ...................................................................................397
13.12. Summary
....................................................................................................403
13.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources ....................................................403
Review Questions ...................................................................................................403
References ................................................................................................................404

14. Accuracy Assessment 408
14.1. Definition and Significance 408
14.2. Sources of Classification Error 410
14.3. Error Characteristics 411
14.4. Measurement of Map Accuracy 412
14.5. Interpretation of the Error Matrix 418
14.6. Summary 424
Review Questions 425
References 426


15. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 429
15.1. Introduction 429
15.2. Spectroscopy 429
15.3. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing 430
15.4. The Airborne Visible/Infrared Imaging Spectrometer 430
15.5. The Image Cube 431
15.6. Spectral Libraries 432
15.7. Spectral Matching 433
15.8. Spectral Mixing Analysis 434

15.9. Spectral Angle Mapping 437
15.10. Analyses 437
15.11. Wavelet Analysis for Hyperspectral Imagery 438
15.12. Summary 439
Review Questions 440
References 441
16. Change Detection 445
16.1. Introduction 445

16.2. Bitemporal Spectral Change Detection Techniques 446
16.3. Multitemporal Spectral Change Detection 452
16.4. Summary 460
Review Questions 460
References 461

Part IV. Applications

17. Plant Sciences 465
17.1. Introduction 465
17.2. Structure of the Leaf 470
17.3. Spectral Behavior of the Living Leaf 472
17.4. Forestry 476
17.5. Agriculture 479
17.6. Vegetation Indices 483
17.7. Applications of Vegetation Indices 484
17.8. Phenology 485
17.9. Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer 487
17.10. Conservation Tillage 489
17.11. Land Surface Phenology 491
17.12. Separating Soil Reflectance from Vegetation Reflectance 493
17.13. Tasseled Cap Transformation 495
17.14. Foliar Chemistry 498

17.15. Lidar Data for Forest Inventory and Structure 500
17.16. Precision Agriculture 501
17.17. Remote Sensing for Plant Pathology 502
17.18. Summary 506
17.19. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 506
Review Questions 507
References 508

18. Earth Sciences 517
18.1. Introduction 517
18.2. Photogeology 518
18.3. Drainage Patterns 521
18.4. Lineaments 523
18.5. Geobotany 527
18.6. Direct Multispectral Observation of Rocks and Minerals 531
18.7. Photoclinometry 533

18.8. Band Ratios 534
18.9. Soil and Landscape Mapping 537
18.10. Integrated Terrain Units 540
18.11. Wetlands Inventory 542
18.12. Radar Imagery for Exploration 542
18.13. Summary 543
18.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 543
Review Questions 543
References 544


19. Hydrospheric Sciences 549
19.1. Introduction 549
19.2. Spectral Characteristics of Water Bodies 550
19.3. Spectral Changes as Water Depth Increases 553
19.4. Location and Extent of Water Bodies 555
19.5. Roughness of the Water Surface 557
19.6. Bathymetry 558
19.7. Landsat Chromaticity Diagram 564
19.8. Drainage Basin Hydrology 567
19.9. Evapotranspiration 570
19.10. Manual Interpretation 571
19.11. Sea Surface Temperature 575
19.12. Lidar Applications for Hydrospheric Studies 576
19.13. Summary 577
19.14. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 578
Review Questions 579
References 580


20. Land Use and Land Cover 585
20.1. Introduction 585
20.2. Aerial Imagery for Land Use Information 586
20.3. Land Use Classification 587
20.4. Visual Interpretation of Land Use and Land Cover 588
20.5. Land Use Change by Visual Interpretation 596
20.6. Historical Land Cover Interpretation for Environmental
Analysis 597
20.7. Other Land Use Classification Systems 599
20.8. Land Cover Mapping by Image Classification 601
20.9. Broad-Scale Land Cover Studies 603
20.10. Sources of Compiled Land Use Data 604
20.11. Summary 606
20.12. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 608
Review Questions 608
References 609


21. Global Remote Sensing 614
21.1. Introduction 614
21.2. Biogeochemical Cycles 614
21.3. Advanced Very-High-Resolution Radiometer 621

21.4. Earth Observing System 622
21.5. Earth Observing System Instruments 623
21.6. Earth Observing System Bus 627
21.7. Earth Observing System Data and Information System 629
21.8. Long-Term Environmental Research Sites 630
21.9. Earth Explorer 631
21.10. Global Monitoring for Environment and Security 632
21.11. Gridded Global Population Data 633
21.12. Summary 634
21.13. Some Teaching and Learning Resources 634
Review Questions 635
References 635
Conclusion. T he Outlook for the Field of Remote Sensing: 639
The View from 2011
Index 643
About the Authors 667

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Introduction to Remote Sensing Fifth Edition