Preface
Image processing is used in a wide variety of applications for two somewhat different
purposes:
Improving the visual appearance of images to a human viewer, including their printing and transmission Preparing images for the measurement of the features and structures that they reveal
The techniques that are appropriate for each of these tasks are not always the same, but there is considerable overlap. This book covers methods that are used for both tasks.
To do the best possible job, it is important to know about the uses to which the processed images will be put. For visual enhancement, this means having some familiarity with the human visual process and an appreciation of what cues the viewer responds to in an image. In this edition of the book, a chapter on that subject has been added.
It also is useful to know about the printing or display process, since many images are processed in the context of reproduction or transmission. Printing technology for images has advanced significantly with the consumer impact of digital cameras, and up-to-date information is provided.
The measurement of images is often a principal method for acquiring scientific data, and generally requires that features or structure be well defined, either by edges or unique brightness, color, texture, or some combination of these factors. The types of measurements that can be performed on entire scenes or on individual features are important in determining the appropriate processing steps. Several chapters deal with measurement in detail.
It may help to recall that image processing, like food processing or word processing, does not reduce the amount of data present but simply rearranges it. Some arrangements may be more appealing to the senses, and some may convey more meaning, but these two criteria do not necessarily overlap and may not call for identical methods.
This handbook presents an extensive collection of image-processing tools, so that the user of computer-based systems can both understand those methods provided in packaged
software and program those additions that may be needed for particular applications. Comparisons are presented for different algorithms that can be used for similar purposes, using a selection of representative pictures from various microscopy techniques as well as macroscopic, remote sensing, and astronomical images.
The emphasis throughout continues to be on explaining and illustrating methods so that they can be clearly understood, rather than providing dense mathematics. With the advances in computer speed and power, tricks and approximations in search of efficiency are not as important as they once were, so the examples based on exact implementation of methods with full precision can generally be implemented on today’s desktop systems.
CONTENTS
1 Acquiring Images . ..............................................1
Human reliance on images for information............ 1
Video cameras................................................... 4
CCD cameras.................................................... 6
Camera artifacts and limitations......................... 11
Color cameras................................................. 12
Camera resolution............................................ 15
CMOS cameras............................................... 17
Focusing......................................................... 18
Electronics and bandwidth limitations................. 19
Pixels.............................................................. 21
Gray‑scale resolution........................................ 23
Noise............................................................. 26
High‑depth images........................................... 27
Color imaging................................................. 31
Digital camera limitations.................................. 39
Color spaces................................................... 42
Color correction............................................... 51
Color displays................................................. 55
Image types..................................................... 57
Range imaging................................................ 59
Multiple images............................................... 64
Stereoscopy..................................................... 70
Imaging requirements....................................... 76
2 Human Vision............................................... 83
What we see and why...................................... 83
Recognition..................................................... 86
Technical specs................................................ 89
Acuity............................................................. 94
What the eye tells the brain............................... 96
Spatial comparisons......................................... 99
Local to global hierarchies............................... 102
It’s about time................................................ 108
The third dimension........................................ 112
How versus what............................................ 115
Seeing what isn’t there, and vice versa............. 117
Image compression......................................... 119
A world of light.............................................. 121
Size matters................................................... 123
Shape (whatever that means)........................... 126
Context......................................................... 127
Arrangements must be made........................... 129
Seeing is believing......................................... 131
So, in conclusion …........................................ 133
3 Printing and Storage. ..................................135
Printing......................................................... 135
Dots on paper................................................ 140
Color printing................................................ 146
Printing hardware........................................... 152
Film recorders................................................ 157
Other presentation tools.................................. 160
File storage................................................... 161
Storage media............................................... 162
Magnetic recording........................................ 164
Databases for images..................................... 166
Browsing and thumbnails................................ 171
Lossless coding.............................................. 174
Reduced color palettes.................................... 180
JPEG compression.......................................... 181
Wavelet compression...................................... 187
Fractal compression........................................ 190
Digital movies................................................ 192
4 Correcting Imaging Defects. ........................195
Contrast expansion......................................... 195
Noisy images................................................ 199
Neighborhood averaging............................... 203
Neighborhood ranking................................... 214
Other neighborhood noise‑reduction methods.... 225
Defect removal, maximum entropy, and
maximum likelihood...................................... 230
Nonuniform illumination.................................. 235
Fitting a background function........................... 238
Rank leveling................................................. 244
Color images................................................. 247
Nonplanar views............................................ 251
Computer graphics......................................... 252
Geometrical distortion..................................... 255
Alignment...................................................... 256
Interpolation.................................................. 261
Morphing...................................................... 266
5 Image Enhancement (Processing in
the Spatial Domain). ......................................269
Contrast manipulation..................................... 270
Histogram equalization................................... 274
Laplacian...................................................... 281
Derivatives.................................................... 291
Finding edges................................................ 292
Rank operations............................................. 307
Texture.......................................................... 312
Fractal analysis.............................................. 316
Implementation notes...................................... 316
Image math................................................... 317
Subtracting images......................................... 318
Multiplication and division.............................. 321
Principal components analysis.......................... 323
Other image combinations.............................. 328
6 Processing Images in Frequency
Space. .................................................................335
What frequency space is all about................... 335
The Fourier transform...................................... 336
Fourier transforms of real functions................... 340
Frequencies and orientations........................... 345
Preferred orientation....................................... 349
Texture and fractals........................................ 354
Isolating periodic noise................................... 356
Selective masks and filters............................... 360
Selection of periodic information...................... 366
Convolution................................................... 373
Deconvolution................................................ 377
Noise and Wiener deconvolution..................... 382
Template matching and correlation................... 389
Autocorrelation.............................................. 393
7 Segmentation and Thresholding . ...................397
Thresholding.................................................. 397
Automatic settings.......................................... 400
Multiband images.......................................... 404
Two‑dimensional thresholds............................. 406
Multiband thresholding................................... 408
Thresholding from texture................................ 412
Multiple thresholding criteria............................ 414
Textural orientation......................................... 416
Region boundaries......................................... 420
Selective histograms....................................... 425
Boundary lines............................................... 428
Contours....................................................... 430
Image representation...................................... 432
Other segmentation methods........................... 436
The general classification problem.................... 439
8 Processing Binary Images. .........................443
Boolean operations........................................ 443
Combining Boolean operations........................ 447
Masks........................................................... 450
From pixels to features.................................... 452
Boolean logic with features.............................. 458
Selecting features by location.......................... 462
Double thresholding........................................ 466
Erosion and dilation....................................... 468
Opening and closing...................................... 472
Isotropy......................................................... 476
Measurements using erosion and dilation.......... 478
Extension to gray‑scale images......................... 479
Morphology neighborhood parameters............. 481
Examples of use............................................. 484
Euclidean distance map.................................. 489
Watershed segmentation................................. 493
Ultimate eroded points.................................... 496
Skeletonization.............................................. 498
Boundary lines and thickening......................... 504
Combining skeleton and EDM.......................... 508
9 Global Image Measurements. .....................511
Global measurements and stereology............... 511
Surface area.................................................. 516
ASTM Grain Size........................................... 521
Multiple types of surfaces................................ 523
Length........................................................... 524
Sampling strategies........................................ 527
Determining number....................................... 529
Curvature, connectivity, and the Disector........... 532
Anisotropy and gradients................................ 535
Size distributions............................................ 537
Classical stereology (unfolding)........................ 540
10 Feature‑Specific Measurements. .................543
Brightness measurements................................. 543
Determining location....................................... 549
Orientation.................................................... 553
Neighbor relationships.................................... 554
Alignment...................................................... 559
Counting features........................................... 565
Special counting procedures............................ 568
Feature size................................................... 572
Circles and ellipses......................................... 574
Caliper dimensions......................................... 576
Perimeter....................................................... 579
Describing shape........................................... 581
Fractal dimension........................................... 585
Harmonic analysis.......................................... 589
Topology....................................................... 593
Three‑dimensional measurements...................... 594
11 Feature Recognition and
Classification. ...................................................599
Template matching and cross‑correlation........... 599
Parametric Description.................................... 601
Decision Points............................................... 607
Multidimensional classification......................... 610
Learning systems............................................ 615
kNN and cluster analysis................................ 619
Expert Systems............................................... 622
Neural Networks............................................ 624
Syntactical models.......................................... 626
12 Tomographic Imaging. ................................629
Volume imaging vs. sections............................ 629
Basics of reconstruction................................... 632
Algebraic reconstruction methods..................... 637
Maximum entropy.......................................... 641
Defects in reconstructed images....................... 642
Beam hardening............................................ 646
Imaging geometries........................................ 652
Three‑dimensional tomography........................ 656
High‑resolution tomography............................. 663
13 3‑D Image Visualization . ...............................667
Sources of 3‑D data........................................ 667
Serial sections................................................ 669
Optical sectioning.......................................... 673
Sequential removal......................................... 675
Stereo measurement....................................... 677
3‑D data sets................................................. 682
Slicing the data set......................................... 684
Arbitrary section planes.................................. 688
The use of color............................................. 691
Volumetric display.......................................... 694
Stereo viewing............................................... 696
Special display hardware................................ 700
Ray tracing.................................................... 702
Reflection...................................................... 706
Surfaces........................................................ 711
Multi-ply connected surfaces............................ 716
Image processing in 3‑D.................................. 720
Measurements on 3‑D images.......................... 725
14 Imaging Surfaces . .......................................729
Producing surfaces......................................... 729
Devices that image surfaces by
physical contact........................................... 732
Noncontacting measurements.......................... 735
Microscopy of surfaces................................... 738
Surface composition imaging........................... 741
Processing of range images............................. 743
Processing of composition maps....................... 746
Data presentation and visualization.................. 747
Rendering and visualization............................ 752
Analysis of surface data.................................. 758
Profile measurements...................................... 760
The Birmingham measurement suite.................. 763
Topographic analysis and fractal dimensions..... 769
References . ......................................................777
Index. ................................................................................................795
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