Contents of the Book
Chapter 1: An Introduction to GIS ................................ ........................1
Introduction......................................................................................1
What Is a GIS? .............................................................................................1
GIS: A Ubiquitous Tool................................................................................2
Why Do We Need GIS? ...............................................................................3
GIS in Action ...............................................................................................8
GIS Components ............................................................................15
Hardware for GIS.......................................................................................15
GIS Software..............................................................................................16
Open Geospatial Consortium.....................................................................16
ArcGIS .......................................................................................................17
QGIS ..........................................................................................................17
GeoMedia...................................................................................................17
MapInfo......................................................................................................18
Idrisi ...........................................................................................................18
Manifold.....................................................................................................19
Maptitude ...................................................................................................19
AUTOCAD MAP 3D.................................................................................19
GRASS.......................................................................................................19
MicroImages ..............................................................................................20
ERDAS.......................................................................................................20
Bentley Map...............................................................................................20
Smallworld .................................................................................................21
GIS in Organizations......................................................................22
Summary....................................................................................................23
The Structure of This Book .......................................................................23
Chapter 2: Data Models................................................. 29
Introduction....................................................................................29
Coordinate Data .........................................................................................32
An Ellipsoidal Earth...................................................................................36
Converting Arc to Surface Distances ........................................................36
Geographic to 3-Dimensional Cartesian Coordinates ...............................38
Geographic and Magnetic North................................................................38
Attribute Data and Types ...........................................................................39
Common Spatial Data Models .......................................................40
Vector Data Models........................................................................42
Polygon Inclusions and Boundary Generalization .....................................46
Vector Topology .........................................................................................48
Vector Features, Tables, and Structures.....................................................52
Raster Data Models........................................................................54
Models and Cells........................................................................................54
Raster Features and Attribute Tables .........................................................57
A Comparison of Raster and Vector Data Models.....................................59
Conversion Between Raster and Vector Models........................................60
Other Data Models .........................................................................63
Triangulated Irregular Networks ...............................................................63
Object Data Models................................................................................... 64
Three-Dimensional Data Models...............................................................67
Multiple Models .........................................................................................68
Data and File Structures.................................................................69
Binary and ASCII Numbers.......................................................................69
Pointers and Indexes ..................................................................................70
Data Compression ......................................................................................72
Raster Pyramids.........................................................................................73
Common File Formats................................................................................74
Summary....................................................................................................76
Chapter 3: Geodesy, Datums, Map Projections
and Coordinate Systems............................................85
Introduction....................................................................................85
Early Measurements...................................................................................87
Specifying the Ellipsoid .............................................................................89
The Geoid...................................................................................................91
Horizontal Datums.....................................................................................95
Datum Adjustment .....................................................................................98
Commonly Used Datums......................................................................... 101
Datum Transformations ...........................................................................105
Vertical Heights and Datums ...................................................................108
Vdatum..................................................................................................... 112
Dynamic Heights ..................................................................................... 114
Map Projections and Coordinate Systems.................................... 116
Common Map Projections in GIS ............................................................122
The State Plane Coordinate System .........................................................124
Universal Transverse Mercator Coordinate System.................................128
National Coordinate Systems................................................................... 131
Continental and Global Projections..........................................................132
Conversion Among Coordinate Systems .................................................133
The Public Land Survey System..............................................................134
Summary..................................................................................................137
Chapter 4: Maps, Data Entry, Editing, and Output... 147
Building a GIS Database.............................................................. 147
Introduction.............................................................................................. 147
Map Types................................................................................................150
Map Scale................................................................................................. 151
Map Generalization..................................................................................153
Map Boundaries and Spatial Data............................................................155
Digitizing: Coordinate Capture....................................................156
On-Screen Digitizing ...............................................................................157
Hardcopy Map Digitization......................................................................158
Characteristics of Manual Digitizing.......................................................159
The Digitizing Process.............................................................................160
Digitizing Errors, Node and Line Snapping.............................................162
Reshaping: Line Smoothing and Thinning ..............................................163
Scan Digitizing ........................................................................................165
Editing Geographic Data .........................................................................166
Features Common to Several Layers .......................................................168
Coordinate Transformation .......................................................... 170
Control Points...........................................................................................172
The Affine Transformation ...................................................................... 173
Other Coordinate Transformations .......................................................... 176
A Caution When Evaluating Transformations ......................................... 176
Control Point Sources: Surveying............................................................ 178
Control Points from Existing Maps and Digital Data .............................. 179
GNSS Control Points................................................................................180
Raster Geometry and Resampling ...........................................................180
Map Projection vs. Transformation..........................................................182
Output: Maps, Digital Data, Metadata.........................................183
Cartography and Map Design ..................................................................183
Digital Data Output..................................................................................189
Metadata: Data Documentation ...............................................................190
Summary..................................................................................................192
Chapter 5: Global Navigation Satellite Systems
and Coordinate Surveying ...................................... 203
Introduction..................................................................................203
GNSS Basics ............................................................................................204
GNSS Broadcast Signals..........................................................................206
Range Distances.......................................................................................208
Positional Uncertainty.............................................................................. 210
Sources of Range Error............................................................................ 210
Satellite Geometry and Dilution of Precision .......................................... 211
Differential Correction................................................................. 215
Real Time Differential Positioning .......................................................... 217
WAAS and Satellite-based Corrections ................................................... 219
Real Time Kinematic and VRS ............................................................... 219
Precise Point Positioning..........................................................................220
A Caution on Datums...............................................................................220
Optical and Laser Coordinate Surveying.....................................221
GNSS Applications ......................................................................227
Field Digitization......................................................................................227
Field Digitizing Accuracy and Efficiency ................................................230
Rangefinder Integration ...........................................................................234
GNSS Height Measurement .....................................................................235
GNSS Tracking ........................................................................................236
Summary..................................................................................................238
Chapter 6: Aerial and Satellite Images ...................... 249
Basic Principles............................................................................249
Aerial Images ...............................................................................252
Camera Aircraft, Formats and Systems ...................................................252
Digital Aerial Cameras ............................................................................254
Film and Film Cameras............................................................................256
Geometric Quality of Aerial Images........................................................258
Terrain and Tilt Distortion in Aerial Images............................................259
System Errors: Media, Lens, and Camera Distortion ..............................263
Stereo Photographic Coverage .................................................................264
Geometric Correction of Aerial Images...................................................266
Photo Interpretation .................................................................................269
Satellite Images ............................................................................272
Basic Principles of Satellite Image Scanners ...........................................272
High Resolution Satellite Systems ...........................................................274
Mid Resolution Satellite Systems.............................................................277
Landsat.....................................................................................................278
Resourcesat ..............................................................................................280
RapidEye ..................................................................................................281
Coarse-Resolution, Global Satellite Systems ...........................................281
MERIS .....................................................................................................282
Other Systems ..........................................................................................282
Satellite Images in GIS ............................................................................283
Aerial or Satellite Images : Which to Use? ..............................................283
Airborne LiDAR ..........................................................................285
Image Sources..........................................................................................288
Small Unmanned Aerial Vehicles: Drones...............................................289
Summary..................................................................................................290
Chapter 7: Digital Data................................................ 297
Introduction..................................................................................297
Map Services vs. Locally Storable Data ..................................................298
National and Global Digital Data.................................................299
Global Digital Elevation Data ..................................................................302
Digital Data for the United States ................................................303
National Spatial Data Infrastructure........................................................303
The U.S. National Map.............................................................................303
Digital Elevation Models..........................................................................305
Hydrologic Data .......................................................................................307
Digital Images.......................................................................................... 311
Legacy Aerial Photographs: SCS, DOQ, NHAP, and NAPP Photos....... 312
NAIP Digital Images................................................................................ 312
National Landcover Data ......................................................................... 314
NASS CDL............................................................................................... 316
National Wetlands Inventory.................................................................... 317
Digital Soils Data ..................................................................................... 318
Digital Floodplain Data............................................................................322
Climate, Geology, and Other Environmental Data ..................................323
Digital Census Data .................................................................................324
Summary..................................................................................................327
Chapter 8: Tables ......................................................... 331
Introduction.................................................................................. 331
Database Components and Characteristics ..............................................334
Physical, Logical, and Conceptual Structures..........................................337
Relational Databases ................................................................................338
Primary Operators ...................................................................................340
Hybrid Database Designs in GIS .............................................................344
Selection Based on Attributes ......................................................345
The Restrict Operator: Table Queries ......................................................345
Joining (or Relating) Tables..........................................................350
Primary Keys and Joins ........................................................................... 351
Foreign Keys ............................................................................................354
Concatenated Keys...................................................................................354
Multitable Joins........................................................................................356
Normal Forms in Relational Databases........................................357
Keys and Functional Dependencies .........................................................357
The First and Second Normal Forms .......................................................359
The Third Normal Form ..........................................................................362
Summary..................................................................................................364
Chapter 9: Basic Spatial Analysis............................... 373
Introduction..................................................................................373
Input, Operations, and Output..................................................................374
Scope........................................................................................................375
Selection and Classification..........................................................378
Set Algebra...............................................................................................378
Boolean Algebra.......................................................................................380
Spatial Selection Operations ....................................................................382
Classification............................................................................................385
The Modifiable Areal Unit Problem.........................................................392
Dissolve........................................................................................394
Proximity Functions and Buffering .............................................396
Buffers......................................................................................................397
Raster Buffers ..........................................................................................398
Vector Buffers ..........................................................................................398
Overlay.........................................................................................403
Raster Overlay......................................................................................... 404
Vector Overlay .........................................................................................405
Clip, Intersect, and Union: Special Cases of Overlay ..............................409
A Problem in Vector Overlay................................................................... 415
An Example Spatial Analysis................................................................... 416
Network Analysis.........................................................................420
Geocoding................................................................................................426
Summary..................................................................................................428
Chapter 10: Topics in Raster Analysis ....................... 443
Introduction..................................................................................443
Map Algebra ............................................................................... 444
Local Functions............................................................................448
Mathematical Functions...........................................................................448
Logical Operations...................................................................................449
Reclassification......................................................................................... 451
Nested Functions......................................................................................453
Overlay.....................................................................................................454
Neighborhood, Zonal, and Global Functions ...............................460
Zonal Functions .......................................................................................469
Cost Surfaces ...........................................................................................470
Summary..................................................................................................473
Chapter 11: Terrain Analysis ......................................483
Introduction..................................................................................483
Slope and Aspect......................................................................................485
Hydrologic Functions ...............................................................................492
Profile Plots ..............................................................................................501
Contour Lines...........................................................................................501
Viewsheds ................................................................................................504
Shaded Relief Maps .................................................................................505
Terrain Analysis Software .......................................................................506
Summary..................................................................................................507
Chapter 12: Spatial Estimation: Interpolation,
Prediction, Core Area ............................................. 519
Introduction.................................................................................. 519
Sampling ...................................................................................... 521
Sampling Patterns .................................................................................... 521
Spatial Interpolation Methods......................................................524
Nearest Neighbor Interpolation................................................................526
Fixed Radius – Local Averaging..............................................................527
Inverse Distance Weighted Interpolation.................................................529
Splines......................................................................................................532
Spatial Prediction .........................................................................534
Spatial Regression....................................................................................537
Trend Surface and Simple Spatial Regression .........................................537
Kriging and Co-Kriging ..........................................................................539
Interpolation Accuracy.............................................................................543
Core Area Mapping......................................................................546
Mean Center and Mean Circle .................................................................546
Convex Hulls............................................................................................547
Characteristic Hull Polygons....................................................................549
Kernel Mapping .......................................................................................550
Time-Geographic Density Estimation .....................................................556
Summary..................................................................................................559
Chapter 13: Spatial Models and Modeling................. 571
Introduction..................................................................................571
Cartographic Modeling ................................................................575
Designing a Cartographic Model.............................................................577
Weightings and Rankings ........................................................................577
Rankings Within Criteria.........................................................................578
Weighting Among Criteria.......................................................................580
Cartographic Models: A Detailed Example .............................................583
Simple Spatial Models..............................................................................592
Spatio-Temporal Models ..........................................................................595
Cell-Based Models ...................................................................................597
Agent-Based Modeling ............................................................................599
Example 1: Process-Based Hydrologic Models........................................599
Example 2: LANDIS, a Stochastic Model ...............................................602
LANDIS Design Elements.......................................................................603
Summary..................................................................................................606
Chapter 14: Data Standards,Data Quality................. ..............................617
Introduction.................................................................................. 617
The Geospatial Competency Model......................................................... 619
Spatial Data Standards .............................................................................620
Data Accuracy..............................................................................621
Documenting Spatial Data Accuracy.......................................................622
Positional Accuracy..................................................................................624
A Standard Method for Measuring Positional Accuracy .........................627
Accuracy Calculations .............................................................................628
Errors in Linear or Area Features ............................................................632
Attribute Accuracy...................................................................................633
Error Propagation in Spatial Analysis......................................................635
Summary..................................................................................................636
Chapter 15: New Developments in GIS ...................... .........................641
Introduction..................................................................................641
GNSS ...........................................................................................642
Fixed and Mobile Three-Dimensional Mapping..................................... 644
Datum Modernization..................................................................647
National Adjustment of 2011 (NA2011) ...................................................648
Improved Remote Sensing ...........................................................649
Cloud-Based GIS..........................................................................654
Open GIS .....................................................................................655
Open Standards for GIS...........................................................................655
Open Source GIS .....................................................................................656
A Hybrid Model .......................................................................................656
Summary..................................................................................................657
Appendix A: Glossary.................................................. 661
Appendix B: Geographic Data Sources...................... 677
Appendix C: Useful Conversions ................................683
Length ......................................................................................................683
Area..........................................................................................................683
Angles ......................................................................................................683
Scale .........................................................................................................683
State Plane Zones .....................................................................................684
Trigonometric Relationships ....................................................................685
Appendix D: Answers to Selected Study Questions .. 697
Chapter 1..................................................................................................697
Chapter 2..................................................................................................698
Chapter 3..................................................................................................701
Chapter 4..................................................................................................705
Chapter 5..................................................................................................709
Chapter 6..................................................................................................712
Chapter 7.................................................................................................. 714
Chapter 8..................................................................................................715
Chapter 9.................................................................................................. 717
Chapter 10 ................................................................................................725
Chapter 11 ................................................................................................728
Chapter 12 ................................................................................................733
Chapter 13 ................................................................................................737
Chapter 14 ................................................................................................739
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